Leadership and management 

This report will focus on defining the terms leadership and management and explore theoretical concepts concerning how to be a successful leader.

This report will be divided into four sections, in order to answer four individual questions, to conclude how to be a successful leader, whether traits, skills and styles can be developed, or are innate, the difference between leadership and management and a conclusion concerning the experiences learnt within this module.

 

Contents

 

What is involved in being a successful leader? 

 

• Traits

• Skills

• Styles

 

Can successful leadership be developed?

 

What distinguishes leadership from management?

 

What else have you learnt?

 

Conclusion

 

What is involved in being a successful leader?

 

In order to become a successful leader, it is essential that an individual has certain qualities and behaviours. 

These can be easily categorised into three subdivisions - traits, skills and styles. Research has led to a theoretical analysis of personalities and behaviours required, that lead to successful leadership. In addition, research has shown behaviours and personalities that consequently are ineffective, and lead to poor leadership.

This question will answer what is involved in being a successful leader, and includes references to theories concerning traits, skills and styles, as well as approaches and models.

 

In order to become a successful leader,  an individual should demonstrate a combination of qualities, ranging from integrity and support, to responsibility and dependence. This equal balance ensures success within social and follower aspects of the organisation, as well as maintaining an ordered, structured working environment, where responsibility is delegated.

 

Traits

When referring to idealistic traits, research has often concluded that in order to be a successful leader, individuals should have the ability to demonstrate personality traits such as confidence, integrity, and supportiveness. 

 

To support this idea, Ralph Stogdill (1948) defined a list of what he deemed to be common leadership traits. These include; capacity (intelligence and communication), achievement (mental), responsibility (dependable), participation (valuable social skills) and status (popularity). 

 

In addition, research from Kirtpatrick and Locke (1991) also defined a list of major leadership traits. They concluded that there are six most important traits needed for successful leadership, these include; drive, self confidence, integrity, leadership motivation, intellect and expertise in context. Their research also defined these critical personality traits.

The first personality trait, drive, is stated to be shown in an individual who embodies energy, tenacity and initiative.

The second trait, self confidence, is said to be defined by an individual who inspires trust, emotional stability and has a tolerance of stress. Thirdly, they stated that an individual needs to have integrity, which involves honesty and the ability to be morally committed.

The fourth trait, leadership motivation includes the ability of commitment to pursue individual gain (personalised) and the ability to seek others to achieve (socialised).

Intellect is another key personality trait and is stated to include analytic ability, judgement and the ability to think strategically. Lastly, expertise in context is said to involve having in depth knowledge of a business, as well as longevity of experience.

 

Skills

Furthermore, in order to become a successful leader, research has found that it is necessary to be in abundance of certain skills.

Research from Katz (1955) found that there were three key skills that an individual must have in order to become a successful leader. 

Firstly, it is stated that it is necessary to demonstrate technical skills, such as by having knowledge of specific types of work.  Secondly, it is said that a leader must also have human skills, which involves the ability to have knowledge about, and be able to work with people.

Lastly, Katz stated that a successful leader must have conceptual skills, which is described as having mental proficiency to shape the meaning of an organisation policy.

 

To comprise this into a usable model, tests have been created in which individuals can use in order to find out what category their personality is more cohesive with.

Paul Costa and Robert McCrea’s Five Factor Personality Model is a ‘model of personality trait structure’ (Costa, P & McCrae, R, 2017, 6) and includes five categories; neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness. The model is designed using a self report questionnaire, in which individuals score themselves against a list of statements (such as, ‘strongly agree’ or ‘strongly disagree’) based on how they would describe their personality. The model then uses this to calculate how accurately their personality is suited within each category. 

Those with a high score within the ‘neuroticism’ category are said to be described by the model as being depressed, anxious, insecure and vulnerable. 

Contrastingly, those scoring high in the extraversion personality trait are described as being sociable, assertive and positive.

Thirdly, the openness personality trait is described as cohesive towards those who are seen to present qualities such as being informed, creative, insightful and curious.

Additionally, agreeableness scores higher with those described as being accepting, conforming, trusting and nurturing.

Lastly, the trait of conscientiousness scores high with those who are organised, controlled and dependable.

 

This research into personality traits supports my initial argument that a leader must demonstrate a balance of skills, such as Katz’s statement that there is a requirement of human and technical skills that a successful leader must have.

 

Styles

The styles and behaviours of a leader is also crucial in being successful. “Leadership effectiveness may be explained and developed by identifying appropriate styles and behaviour.” (Pendleton & Furnham, 2012: 12) The following research concerns leadership behaviours, and how leaders act.

 

Research from a study by Ohio State (1940s) defined two types of behaviours, initiating structure and consideration.

Their research consisted of a questionnaire, with the purpose of finding out the number of times leaders (across a wide background including military, industry, education) demonstrated certain behaviours.

Ohio State defined initiating structure (task behaviours) as leaders who organise work, give structure to their subordinates, schedule work and activities and act with responsibility. Secondly, they defined consideration (relationship behaviours) as leaders who demonstrate respect and support towards their subordinates.

 

From this research, Stogdill (1959) defined a list of twelve leadership behaviours. These include representation, demand reconciliation, tolerance of uncertainty, persuasiveness, initiation of structure, tolerance and freedom, role assumption, consideration, production emphasis, predictive accuracy, integration and superior orientation. This list also coincides with Ohio State’s findings, and includes the definition of initiating structure and consideration.

 

Further research from Judge et al (2004) in The Forgotten Ones? The Validity of Consideration and Initiating Structure in Leadership research concerned whether initiating structure and consideration correlate with the concept of successful leadership. 

This research supports my argument that it is necessary to have a balanced combination of both behaviours. This is because initiating structure was found to have a greater impact on the subordinate work ethic and performance, but consideration was found to have a better effect on the mental well being and satisfaction of subordinates.

 

Additionally, a later study to the Ohio State research was by the University of Michigan (1950) and was conducted concerning the effectiveness of leader behaviour within small groups. They researched employee orientation, to focus on human relations and production orientation (which focuses on the work within a job itself).

 

To support this, Rensis Likert (1960) created a list of four management systems, ranging from one - exploitative authority, benevolent authority, consultative and system four -  participative.

Exploitative authority concerns the event at which a leader demonstrates minimal involvement, and pushes motivation through use of fear and punishment. Benevolent authority is used to describe the instance when a leader demonstrates minimal involvement, but encourages motivation through use of rewards. Consultative is described as when information is shared and there is an increased amount of teamwork. Lastly, participative concerns leaders who are involved in making decisions and actively practise open communication. This effectively leads to high levels of trust.

 

Moreover, Robert House's Path-Goal theory (1971) can demonstrate additional research concerning the styles of a successful leader. The Path Goal Theory concerns the ways in which leaders motivate subordinates to achieve designated goals and how clear they make the path for subordinates from effort to reward. 

From this, we can learn that the leader’s style is important as, essentially, the approach concerns removing obstacles which prevent employees from product.

 

This research also supports my argument that to be a successful leader, an individual must demonstrate a combination of qualities, including good communication, integrity and support, as well as responsibility and authority. Using this research, a successful leader would be described as participative, as they lead to high levels of trust.

Can a good leadership be developed, and if so, how?

 

This question concerns whether successful leadership can be developed. 

There are many debates concerning whether the characteristics of good leadership can be consciously developed, or whether they are innate. It is arguable that leaders can develop certain personality traits, however some may be arguably innate.

Using the research stated in the previous question, there is potential for an individual to adapt personality traits such as openness, extraversion and tenacity, as they can all be described as situational, relative to the situation at that specific time. For example, someone may develop the ability of openness, after positive encouragement and experience. Similarly, extraversion can be developed when an individual is around certain groups of people, as well as tenacity and persistence

However, it is also arguable that personality traits such as morality, trust and integrity are innate, as they are not necessarily always easily altered or diminished with development.

According to philosopher Plato, rulers needed to have intelligence and the right personality in order to be successful.

 

Another key point is that qualities needed to be a successful leader are suggested to be situational, which could suggest that qualities can be developed, depending on the situation.

 One of the key approaches was found in research by Hersey and Blanchad (1969) who formed the situational approach to personality. 

The situational approach was described as being demonstrated when leaders match their style to the ability of their subordinates. As this is a situational theory, it depends on the situation at which someone can be categorised as presenting these personality traits. For example, if the situation requires a greater deal of support, then the leader is not necessarily wrong in emphasising this personality trait.

Such supportive behaviours are described as vital to successful leadership. Supportive behaviours include positive, two way communication between leader and subordinate, as well as being intent with listening and praise. The concept of support is something arguably able to be developed.

 

As part of the Situational Approach, these are divided into four combinations; high directive and low support, high directive and high support, low direct and low support, low directive and high support.

High directive and low support is described as occurring in the event that a leader focuses highly on communication of goal achievement, but less on supporting their subordinates.

High directive and high support is the equal combination of behaviours, and involves both positive encouragement and leadership direction. 

Low directive and low support is presented when a leader emphasises employees skills but delegates decision making

Low directive and high support is described as occurring when a leader offers less task input, but a high amount of social support.

 

This research supports my argument as the most effective behaviour combination is high directive and high support, and such behaviours can be developed given the correct situation.

 

Moreover, to support this the leader-match theory essentially matches leaders to appropriate situations, and the leader's effectiveness depends on how well the leader style fits the context. This means that what it takes to be a successful leader is not completely linear, and can be dependent on the situation itself, rather than solely the personality of the leader.

 

However, in contrast to this argument, research from Thomas Carlyle (1946) formed the ‘Great man’ theory in his collection on ‘heroes, hero worship and the heroic in history’. The ‘great man’ theory states that only some people have the characteristics that it takes to be leaders. 

His theory explains that qualities that result in being a successful leader are inherited and innate, rather than being developed. This conclusion subsequently led to further research on general characteristics of the behaviours that distinguish between ‘ordinary’ people within a society and those that are leaders.

This led to research on general characteristics - psychological, biological and behavioural that distinguish leaders from other humans.

 

This research contrasts to my argument that many qualities needed for successful leadership, such as confidence, patience, support and communication can be taught and developed, as Carlyle suggest that only certain individuals have the characteristics needed for successful leadership. However it does somewhat support my argument that certain qualities, such as morality and ethical value are less developmental, and can be described as innate.

 

What distinguishes leadership from management?

 

Once exploring research defining the qualities and characteristics of a successful leader, it is also necessary to define what it means to be a manager.

Essentially, the key difference between a leader and a manager is that the skills needed to be a manager are easier to acquire.  It is possible to learn managerial skills more than it is to learn leadership skills. It is arguably easier to learn to manage and support a team, but not necessarily lead them to a goal. 

 

From the research stated throughout this report, it is argued that leadership is much more extensive and requires multiple personality types, such as specific skills, traits and styles, as well as behavioural approaches.

Leadership is also argued by many theorists to be innate, whereas managerial qualities are much less imperative and are arguably easier to develop, rather than needed to be innate.

 

In her work in Curse of the superstar CEO, Rakesh Khurana states that the secret to being a successful CEO, is assumed to be leadership, and such leaders must demonstrate qualities such as ‘strategic thinking, industry knowledge and political persuasiveness.’ (Rakesh Khurana, 2002) Khurana goes on to say that ‘companies will not be satisfied with an executive who is merely talented and experienced. Companies now want leaders.’ (Kurana, 2002). This research further demonstrates the strong difference between leadership and managers, as there is a desire for leadership, rather than for managerial positions.

 

What have you learned about leadership from your own experiences on this module and/or elsewhere?

 

From this module, I have learnt that in order to be a successful leader, an individual must hold specific personality qualities. 

 

Theorists have presented research that suggests that a successful leader must be an equal balance of integral, supportive, and participative with the purpose of keeping follower motivation high and robust, as well as maintaining a responsible, organised and goal driven personality, to ensure work is completed, and to responsibly lead a group.

This combination of personality qualities and behaviours are described as consequently resulting in successful leadership, and a lack of these qualities can result in poor leadership and a lack of motivation.

 

From this module I have also learnt that leadership qualities can be argued as a combination of innate and developed behaviours. Research has shown that certain qualities, such as energy, patience and extraversion can be developed, as they are described as situational. For example, an individual could develop extraversion qualities over time with confidence and encouragement. However, qualities such as trustworthiness and morality are much more innate in their understanding, and while an individual may be able to gain a further understanding through developmental training or experiences, such qualities are much more deep-rooted in their demonstration.

 

Furthermore, information presented outside of this module within the British BBC reality television show ‘The Apprentice’ demonstrates the requirements and qualities needed for successful leadership, as well as presenting the failures of poor leadership. From The Apprentice, audiences can understand the importance of certain qualities that are needed in order to lead a team of individuals, as well as learn which qualities are most effective when completing a set task. The Apprentice also showcases when certain personality traits, skills and styles are ineffective and result in unsuccessful leadership, and issues within the group as a whole.

This programme demonstrates to an audience how vital personality qualities are when it comes to a leader being successful within their task, and with their subordinates.

 

Conclusion

 

To conclude, this report considers the qualities an individual must have in order to be a successful leader. These qualities include a combination of good communication, support, integrity and assertiveness, as well as responsibility, direction and dedication. These qualities ensure that leaders are supporting their subordinates and encouraging motivation, as well as responsibly leading and directing for the most effective outcome.

Research has supported this argument, as many theorists have claimed that a successful leader is one that demonstrates these qualities, such as describing it as ‘high direction, and high support’. 

 

My argument also stated that many of these qualities are developmental, and can be taught - particularly confidence, patience, extraversion, direction and communication. Whereas, qualities such as morality and ethical approaches can be arguably innate, and not necessarily changed.

However, research, such as the Great Man theory, has suggested that all key leadership qualities are innate, and that a true, successful leader is not developed.

 

Furthermore, research has also concluded the situational approach, which suggests that leadership values and qualities are situational, and not entirely linear to each situation. This research builds on my argument that a successful leader must demonstrate a combination of qualities in order to balance leadership roles, yet this can be dependent on the situation at hand.

 

References

 

Blanchard, Kenneth (1997) Recognition and situational leadership II, Emergency Librarian, Volume 24, Issue 4

 

Costa, P & McCrae, R. 2017, The Five-Factor Model, Five-Factor Theory, and Interpersonal Psychology, p.2-16

DOI:10.1002/9781118001868.ch6

 

Judge, Timothy. (2004) The Forgotten Ones? The Validity of Consideration and Initiating Structure in Leadership Research, Journal of Applied Psychology, Volume 89, P.36-51  DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.89.1.36

 

Katz, Robert. (1955) Skills of an effective administrator, Harvard business review, Volume 33, Issue 1

 

Kirkpatrick, Shelly & Locke, Edwin. (1991) Leadership: do traits matter?, The executive, Volume 5, Issue 2, p.48-60

 

Khurana, Rakesh (2002 ) The curse of the superstar CEO, Harvard business review, Volume 80, Issue 9

 

Pendleton, D. & Furnham, A. 2012, Leadership. All you need to know, Primary Health Care Research & Development, Volume 13 DOI:10.1017/S1463423612000370

 

Stoghill, Ralph. (1947 ) Personal factors associated with leadership; a survey of the literature, the journal of psychology: interdisciplinary and applied, Volume 26